Prepared by Robyn Bergstrom
Chapter 1
Social Needs by William Schutz: As humans we have a range of social needs that we satisfy by communicating with others. The Social Needs theory points out that there are 3 basic social needs. 1)Affection - to express and receive love. 2)Inclusion - to be social, to be in the company of others 3) Control -to have influence. This theory explains a great deal of human behavior.
Practical Goals (Hierarchy of Needs) by Abraham Maslow: Communication is the instrument we use to achieve our basic human needs. Maslow gives a closer look at those needs by organizing all basic human needs into 5 hierarchical categories. We must fulfill the lower levels before we can concern ourselves with each of the higher levels. From most basic to most abstract the levels are: 1) Physical Needs (food, air, water) 2) Safety Needs (shelter etc.) 3)Social Needs (affection, inclusion, control) 4) Self Esteem 5) Self Actualization
C.M.C (Computer Mediated Communication) by J.B. Walther: C.M.C.. demonstrates 3 things. First, that computers are a communication channel. Second, that communication by a computer is not necessarily less personal than other forms of communications. Finally that communication by computer is unique in that we have the ability to strategically manage our identities, as well as edit our messages as well as our responses.
Transactional Nature of Communication by K.J. Gergen: We don't communicate to others, we communicate with others. The Transactional nature of communication also suggests that each communication situation is unique to a degree. The Transactional model of communication (which accompanies the theory) reflects essential things 1) We send and receive messages simultaneously. 2) Communication is a constant and constantly changing process. 3) Time effects our communication 4) Communication takes place in systems that effect us and our meanings. 5) Fields of experience are part of communicating.
I-Thou Communication by Martin Buber: Quality is the distinguishing characteristic of interpersonal communication. We interact deeply or in impersonal, role-bound ways. Or somewhere in between. Buber gives us a 3 level scale for Interactions. 1)I-It - these interactions are very impersonal, we almost treat the other as an object. (i.e., . Servants, beggars etc.) 2) I-You - this type counts for most of our interactions. We don't treat people as objects, but not as unique individuals either. In these situations we are usually guided by our social roles. (i.e., . casual friends, work associates, distant family) 3)I - Thou- Each person affirms the other as unique and important. In this communication (which is rare and special) we are truly ourselves.
Chapter 2
Reflected Appraisal Theory (the Looking Glass theory) by Charles Cooley: We develop a self concept that matches the way we believe others see us. Our basis for deciding who we are depends on how others see us.
Cognitive Conservatism: The self-concept resists change. The tendency is to cling to an existing self-concept even though the evidence suggests it is obsolete. le. a student who once had excellent study habits will cling to the title of a good student regardless of the fact that he has been slacking off
Face Negotiation Theory by S. Ting Toomey: Facework is non-verbal presentation, cues, and impression management that we engage in while creating a public self. Toomey claims that people of different cultures are always "negotiating face" with face work to form an acceptable public self She also points out that cultural differences, along with face work affect the handling of conflict.
Presenting Self Theory by Erving Goffman: In contrast with the perceived self, the presenting self is a public image or the way we want to appear to others. Goffman describes people as performers who are on stage around others, we present ourselves as we act out our various roles.
Chapter 3
Punctuation by Watzalwick, Beavin, and Jackson: We punctuate communication to decide what a series of interactions means. Punctuation defines the beginning and ending of interaction episodes.
Perception of Occupational Roles by Phillip Zimbardo: The kind of work we do influences our views of the world For example, a pick pocket and a botanist may both work in a park, however they probably have different perceptions and focuses. Another example is teachers and students; they share the classroom but have different views. Zimbardo illustrated this concept with the roles of prisoners and guards.
Attribution by Don Hamachek: The term to describe our process of attaching meaning to behavior. Research. proves that we often judge ourselves more charitably than others.
Chapter 4
Emotions by Paul Ekman and Robert Pluchik: There are several components to the feelings we label as emotions. Emotions are processes that are shaped by physiology, perceptions, social experience and language. Ekman's work shows that nonverbal behavior can actually cause an emotional response; for example various emotional states can be altered by a subject's facial expression. Robert Plutchik's emotion wheel illustrates 8 basic emotions and mixed emotions to accompany them, though there are an infinite range of emotions/emotional combinations.
Cognitive Interpretations by Phillip Zimbardo: Zimbardo theorizes that the emotions we feel (the experience of joy, anger, fear etc.) largely comes from the label that we give to the physical symptoms at the same time.
Fallacies by Allen Fay: Fallacies are irrational thoughts that lead to illogical conclusions, and in turn debilitative feelings. Several common fallacies are: 1) The Fallacy of Perfection - believing that one should handle every situation with complete confidence and skill 2). The Fallacy of Approval - believing that it is vital to have approval of virtually every person, and going to incredible lengths to seek acceptance. 3) The Fallacy of Shoulds -the inability to distinguish what is and what should be. 4) The Fallacy of Over-generalization - A) believing things with a limited amount of evidence. B)exaggerating shortcomings 5.) The Fallacy of Causation -believing that emotions are caused by others rather that ones own self-talk. 6) The Fallacy of Helplessness - believing that satisfaction in this life is beyond your control 7.) The Fallacy of Catastrophic expectations - operating on the assumption that if something bad can happen, it probably will.
Chapter 5
Language is Symbolic by S.l. Hayakawa: Words are arbitrary symbols that have no meaning in themselves. Hayakawa's work shows that despite the fact that symbols are arbitrary people often act as if the words had meaning themselves i.e. our aversion to a foreign language believing that things ought to be called by their "right" names.
Coordinated Management of Meaning by W.B. Pearce and V. Cronen: This theory describes some types of pragmatic rules that operate in everyday conversations. It suggests that we use rules at various levels while creating our messages and interpreting others. These levels include I) Content - actual words and behaviors 2) Speech Act - the intent of a statement 3) Relational contract - the perceived relationship between communicators. 4) Episode - situation in which the interaction occurs 5) Life Script - self concept of each communicator 6) Cultural Archetype - cultural norms that shape the persons perceptions and actions.
Low Context and High Context Cultures by Edward Hall: Hall identified two specific cultural ways of using language. Low context cultures use language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as clearly and logically as possible. Self expression is valued and opinions and persuasion are open. Verbal fluency is considered praiseworthy. High Context cultures value language as a way to maintain social harmony. Important information is carried in contextual cues (time, place, relationship, situation etc. ) There is less reliance on explicit verbal messages. Communicators often use indirect expression and talk around the point. Silence and ambiguity are admired.
Linguistic Relativism as in the Saphir-Wharf hypothesis: The idea that language exerts a strong influence on perceptions and world view of the people who speak it.
Chapter 6
Proxemics by Edward Hall: Proxemics refers to space and how we use it. Every culture has norms for using space and how close people should be to one another. (le. In the U.S. 4 to 12 feet is the comfortable distance to interact with social acquaintances whereas people from the middle east stand much closer.) Space also announces status with greater space being assumed by those with higher status. How people arrange space can closely reflect whether or not they want interaction.
The Eyes by E.H. Hess and J.M. Polt: Eyes can communicate both dominance and submission. In Western culture downcast eyes are a sign of giving in, but in some religious orders members are expected to keep eyes down while addressing a superior. Even our pupils communicate. Polt and Hess discovered that our pupils dilate in proportion to our interest in an object.
Expression as a Result of Evolution by Charles Darwin: Darwin believed that expressions are a result of evolution. He asserts that they were used as survival mechanisms that allowed early humans to convey emotional states before the development of language.
Posture by Albert Mehrabian: Posture is the way we carry our selves, and it is a way we communicate nonverbally. Mehrabian found postural keys to feelings are tension and relaxation. He asserts that we take relaxed postures in non-threatening situations and tighten up when threatened.. He also pointed out that posture can convey vulnerability in serious situations. (I.e. rapists often choose victims whose posture indicates they will be easy to intimidate.)
Facial Emotion by Ekman and Friesen: The face and eyes are probably the most noticed, and defiantly the most complex means of non-verbal expression. It is almost impossible to describe the number and kind of expressions we commonly use. Also - facial expressions change extremely quickly. Ekman and Friesen identified six basic emotions that facial expressions reflect (in all cultures) -- Surprise, fear, anger disgust, happiness, and sadness.
Chapter 7
Listening as a Skill by R. Nicols: Listening effectively is hard work. Nicols points out that even the body responds (i.e. increased heart rate etc.) Listening consists of several elements including: hearing, attending, understanding, responding, and remembering. In addition there are several things listeners can do to improve. These range from removing distractions and paraphrasing, to asking good questions, avoiding premature judgement.
Comforting Communication by Brant Burleson: Burleson is a leading researcher on comforting communication. Comforting messages try to ease the emotional distress experienced by others. Burleson explains that comforting messages come in a hierarchy at the bottom are messages that virtually deny the thoughts and feelings of the other i.e.,. You shouldn't be upset about your break-up, there are lots offish in the sea. Mid-level are messages that take the others distress seriously : I'm so sorry you guys broke up. At the very top are messages that validate the others feelings and often add perspective: I know it must hurt. You 're feeling a lot of pain now, and that's OK because 1 know you were really involved, and you expected things to work
Chapter 8
Cycle of Stages (intimate behavior and relationships) by Desmond Morris: Desmond Morris explains how the level of intimacy that feels right in a relationship can change over time. Morris suggests that each of us cycles repeatedly through 3 stages : "Hold me tight", "Put me down", and "Leave me alone."
Culture and Intimacy by Kurt Lewin: The notion of intimacy varies from culture to culture. Some of the greatest differences between Asian and European cultures focus on rules for intimacy: showing emotion, expressing affection in public, sexual activity etc. Another major difference in various cultures is the level and timing of self-disclosure. Lewin, a social psychologist exemplified this when he said, "Americans are easy to meet, but hard to get to know. Germans are hard to meet but easy to get to know."
Exchange Theory: Exchange theory suggest that we seek out people who can give us reward -- either physical or emotional-- that are greater than or equal to the costs we encounter in dealing with these people. When we operate on and "exchange" basis we decide (often unconscious) if dealing with a specific person is a "good deal" or "not worth the effort."
Relational Sates by Mark Knapp: Knapp developed one of the best-know models of relational stages. He broke the rise and fall of relationships into 10 stages contained by the 2 broad phases coming together and coming apart. The steps from coming together to coming apart are as follows. Initiating, Experimenting, Intensifying, Integrating, Bonding, Differentiating, Circumscribing, Stagnating, Avoiding, Terminating.
Social Penetration by Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor: The model of social penetration helps to explain the differing degrees of self-disclosure. Their model involves the breadth and depth of information volunteered. Depending on the breadth and depth of information volunteered, a relationship can be casual or intimate.
The Johari Window by Joseph Luft and Harry lngman: This window provides a way to look at self-disclosure. It is a "frame" that represents everything about the communicator and then divides it into various categories (i.e., Known to others, know to self, not known to others, not known to self.) The size of each window changes from time to time, but can depict an over all style of self disclosure.
Chapter 9
Confirming and Disconfirming Communication by E. Seiberg and K. Cissnar: Confirming Communication describes messages that convey valuing, and disconfirming communication refers to messages that show a lack of regard. Obviously confirming communication much more desirable than disconfirming communication. Confirming communication takes place on three increasingly positive levels. Level 1: Recognition; Level 2: Acknowledgment; Level 3: Endorsement.
Cognitive Dissonance by L. Festinger: Cognitive dissonance is an inconsistency between two conflicting pieces of information, or attitudes, or behavior. Dissonance is an uncomfortable situation, and we usually try to resolve it by seeking consistency. One way to clear it up is to accept a critics analysis. Generally when we do not agree with the critic we resolve the dissonance with defense mechanisms such as attacking the critic with verbal aggression or sarcasm, distorting information by rationalizing, compensating, or regressing, or we avoid dissonant information through physical avoidance, repression, apathy, or displacement.
Defense Mechanisms by L. Festinger: Defense mechanisms are psychological devices that resolve cognitive dissonance by maintaining a positive presenting image. They include: attacking the critic with verbal aggression or sarcasm, distorting information by rationalizing, compensating, or regressing, or we avoid dissonant information through physical avoidance, repression , apathy, or displacement.
Gibb Categories of Defensive and Supportive Behavior by Jack Gibb: in general, communicators become defensive when their presenting image is threatened. Gibb developed a useful tool for controlling this defensiveness when he categorized defensive behaviors (evaluation, control, strategy, neutrality, superiority, and certainty) and 6 that seem to reduce defensiveness by conveying respect (description, problem orientation, spontaneity, empathy, equality, provisionalism).
Chapter 10
Conflict by Joyce Hocker and William Wilmont: These authors provide a thorough definition of conflict as an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards, and interference from the other party in achieving their goals.
Win Win Communication: Win-Win problem solving is superior to win-lose and lose-lose approaches, but Win-win problem solving is a challenge. 6 steps can be taken to handle conflicts in a win-win manner. 1) Identify your problem and unmet needs. 2) Make a date so that both parties will be ready. 3) Describe your problem and needs specifically, completely, and accurately. 4) Consider your Partner's point of view so that both parties can be satisfied. 5)Negotiate a solution. 6)Follow up the solution